The decolonization of Africa that took place in the 1950s and early 1960s opened new opportunities that then Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was eager to exploit. It will not include, therefore, one of Africas greatest human dramas, the Nigerian civil war (19671970), because the two superpowers supported the federal government in Lagos. Without France, what would you be or do? This was the view of many French people, and of many of the 700,000 European settlers (colons) in Algeria who enjoyed the advantages of French citizenship. The decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s resulted in several proxy Cold War confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union over the dozens of newly independent, non-aligned nations. From the 1960s, cinema was one of the most important aspects of the alliances between Cuba, the USSR and African liberation movements. France, too, prevaricated. But for many leaders, it made more sense to evolve an [14], In a complex civil war with outside interventions, Soviet military aid went to the Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA). There was alarm in Washington, where CIA director Allen Dulles suspected that Lumumba was a Castro or worse, and the CIA moved in, supplied with dollars and a hitman instructed to assassinate Lumumba with poisoned toothpaste. Such leaders had come to power at the head of disciplined parties, practised the arts of messianic leadership, and fostered popular optimism. Young, Crawford. Newly independent nations such as Angola, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) provided the stages for some of the most bloody proxy battles between East and West, as the United States, apartheid-era South Africa and China tried to prevent the spread of communism in the global south, while Cuba and the Eastern Bloc sought to support it. It highlights the impact of the Cold War on their growth and policy performance. The unity in the communist bloc was unraveling throughout the 1960s and 70s as a split occurred between China and the Soviet Union. The link was not copied. South Africa was also, as US President Ronald Reagan remarked in 1981, essential to the free world in its production of minerals we all must have. By the late 1950s, however, Paris and London, which had by far the two largest colonial empires in Africa, were ready to make concessions to the Africans growing demands for self-determination. [27] Suddenly, the Ethiopians launched a counter offensive with the help of newly arrived Soviet arms and a South Yemeni brigade. The chapters in this book offer analyses of the socialist strategies of African liberation movements that assumed control of independent governments and common problems they have faced in the process of transitioning from colonial domination. for the very few. March 30, 1946. Chiswick Auctions will sell the collection of a former British journalist and presumed diplomat who gained access to some of the world's most secretive countries during the Cold War era.. From the 1950s to the 1980s, John Newell spent time in North Korea, China, East Germany, Russia, Tibet, Zanzibar, Alaska, and Panama for both work and leisure at a time when many of these areas were largely . Fanon was responsible for promoting from a socialist perspective the intersectionality of colonialism and racism, as well as the idea of popular struggles for African national liberation. However, at least up to this moment in history, nowhere in Africa have there been political and economic systems based solely on communist principles, nor has there ever been a strictly working-class revolution. Feuchtwanger, Edgar, and Peter Nailor, eds. A rival government, the "Free Republic of the Congo", was founded in the eastern city of Stanleyville by Lumumba supporters, led by Antoine Gizenga. The CIA wrote off Nkrumah as a vain opportunist and playboy, and in 1966 were believed to have been involved in a coup that toppled him from power. ", Piero Gleijeses, "Cuba's first venture in Africa: Algeria, 19611965. Cynical pragmatism prevailed in Washington and Moscow when selecting African clients. In Angola a war of succession followed, with three rival nationalist parties fighting for power. Nkrumah was a pan-Africanist the goals of an independent and united Africa took precedence over the socialist revolution. During the 1970s the Cold War entered a phase known as dtente, described as "an improvement in the relationship between two countries that in the past were not friendly and did not trust each . Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on The Soviet Union withdrew its Ambassador after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960. This changed after 1945. ", Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University, Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA), "Mubarak set for talks at Kremlin on nuclear and arms trade", William E. Farrell, "Envoy of Moscow Expelled by Egypt". He was responding to events in the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, DRC) in 1960 following the withdrawal of the Belgians, who had enriched themselves on their colonys mineral resources and neglected the welfare of their subjects: on independence day, 30 June 1960, the Congo had perhaps just 200 African graduates. It also involves a rejection of the free market and the private ownership of property. African form of socialism, drawing on African traditions than following The money secured the loyalty of Colonel Joseph-Dsir Mobutu (who later renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko), a ruthless, ambitious and venal chancer whom the CIA believed to be childish and easily led. Historically, communism on the continent was strongest in Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, and South Africa, which had significant European settlement, but such ideas remained foreign to the African masses until the principles of Marxism-Leninism became popular among intellectuals around the time of World War I ( Drew 2014 ). When we arrived on the Isla de la Juventud [Isle of Youth], we were taken to different rural schools, they were all close to plantations of limes, papayas and yams. London: Zed, 1986. Weaver, Harold. In 1986 Mikhail Gorbachev rejected the idea of a revolutionary takeover of the South African government, and advocated a negotiated settlement. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. (The analysis of the first wave had taken place fifteen years prior to the publication of this book in the early post-independence period.) (2009) 7#5 pp 1259-1268. Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. Still, India was the largest and most vocal Third World country not embedded in the emerging Cold War alliance structure, with Nehru the champion of anti-imperialism and neutralism (Barnes, 2013b . Afterwards he made oblique approaches towards the US. It meant a return to the Cold War. Cold War Alliances& Leaders. Why US foreign policy was more violent in south America or east Asia than in Europe during the cold war ? The level of ideological commitment or interest in socialist doctrine varied among all the different governments and movements which received Soviet military aid. [31], The South African Communist Party (SACP), operating under the direction of the Comintern, was a strong supporter of the African National Congress. It has been reported that between 1963 and 1969 the United States Agency for International Development spent US$3.3m delivering radios and small arms to African police forces and instructing them in strike-breaking, riot control and investigating sedition. Without Soviet and Cuban weaponry, and without Cubas 50,000 troops, the MPLA would almost certainly not have beaten UNITA and the South African Defence Force at the battle of Cuito Cuanavale, in 1988. South Africa, along with Egypt, were the first two countries on the continent to give rise to Communist parties - both in the 1920's. AfricaSoviet Union relations covers the diplomatic, political, military, and cultural relationships between the Soviet Union and Africa from the 1945 to 1991. The USA have a story of backup Coup d'tat in the countries of Latin America, support for anti-communist dictatorships such as Indonesia or Phillipines and millitary invasions as in Vietnam. ", Guy de Carmoy, "France, Algeria, and the Soviet Penetration in the Mediterranean. [24], The 1974 coup installed the Derg, a Communist military junta under General Mengistu Haile Mariam. An age of foreign interference. During the 1950s Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, for example, MI5 investigated possible Soviet involvement but, when questioned, bewildered tribesmen asked: What does a Russian look like? and Can Russians speak Swahili? Clearly, the KGB was making little headway in east Africa. Between the two world wars, some Africans lived and work in Europe, and this experience produced many of the leaders and intelligentsia who would return to Africa with ideas about how to change their own societies and end colonial rule. Somalia appeared to be on the brink of victory after gaining control of 90% of the area. Most socialist systems today are participatory democracies. In Kenyas villages, for example, young demobbed soldiers expressed their new confidence by scoffing at their chiefs and tribal elders. Mengistu urgently needed help. War in Vietnam (1945-46) September 13, 1945. Based on multi-sited archival research and memoirs, this article shows how Africans forged and used new routes to gain access to higher education denied to them in their territories of origin, and in this way also shaped scholarship policies across the globe. Munslow, Barry, ed. It was hailed as a model junior ally that Moscow was eager to support. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Get FREE access to HistoryExtra.com. Matusevich, Maxim. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. The Cold War began after the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, when the uneasy alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other started to fall apart. The highlights this week: A recently concluded Chinese Communist Party leadership meeting offered some hints about an impending . Cold War Alliances. New York: Africana, 1986. Joseph Stalin had a fleeting interest in claiming the former Italian colony of Tripolitania in modern-day Libya, but the NATO containment policy blocked those efforts. Communist ideas have been prevalent in Africa since at least the early 20th century. What is often referred to as Marxism-Leninism rejects participatory democracy in favor of a disciplined, vanguard party in which democracy is practiced only in the central leadership organs of the party. Cold War Some students were shocked by conditions in Moscow, which was summed up by one African visitor as having no cars, no cafes, no good clothes or good food. Second it wanted to gain a voice in African affairs, primarily by supporting local communist parties, and providing economic and military aid to the governments. Almost 450,000 Cubans served in Angola between 1975 and 1991, according to historian Edward George, not only in the military but also as much-needed doctors, teachers and technicians. ", Aryeh Y. Yodfat, "The Soviet Union and the Horn of Africa,", Diana L. Ohlbaum, "Ethiopia and the Construction of Soviet Identity, 1974-1991. [18], In the 1950s, Gamal Abdel Nasser began to follow an anti-imperialist policy that earned him enthusiastic support from the Communist government of the USSR. Neither country followed the Kremlin's directives unquestioningly. On the other hand, both ideology and realpolitik led the Soviet Union to support those who fought for independence. Will China rule the world? From 1960, the Soviet Union became involved in several Marxist, African struggles, providing political support, weapons and military training, including to the Peoples Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in their fight against the Portuguese. US-backed rebels came to Cuban shores in what became a high-profile embarrassment for the US known as the "Bay of Pigs." Outside of China and the USSR, Cubaan island about the size of Floridawas perhaps the most influential communist nation during the Cold War. The Cuban missile crisis showed that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union were ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the others retaliation (and thus of mutual atomic annihilation). Soviet political interference in eastern European nations was a contributing factor to the Cold War and the formation of an Iron Curtain separating Eastern and Western Europe.. During the late 1940s, the United States offered support and inducements to shape the political . The Soviet Union began to establish left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe, determined to safeguard against a possible renewed threat from Germany. In 1979 my family lived very close to a camp for Cubans who were constructing some buildings in Luanda, recalls Angolan writer, Adriano Mixinge. The first such confrontation occurred in the former . Britain was anxious that power in Africa was handed to dependable politicians. But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War. That change was, they suggested, to be achieved over 40 or so years; impatient African nationalist politicians accused them of procrastination. . March 1, 2023, 6:08 PM. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. However, most of its attempts to spread Communism were initially focused on Europe and this did not prevent Lenin and Stalin from trying to force all the former territories of the Russian Empire into the Soviet Union. US and Soviet intelligence agencies played kingmakers, financing and overseeing coups to install biddable rulers. This was the line taken by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1955 when he extended patronage to Nasser. ", Yahia Zoubir, "Soviet policy toward the Western Sahara conflict. By the mid-1980s, the communist powerhouse was facing an economic crisis, losing a war in Afghanistan and overstretched in Africa. End of the World War II. The Cold War reached its peak in 194853. There were only four independent states: Liberia, de facto a US protectorate; Egypt, nominally independent but occupied by British troops; Ethiopia, eager to establish a close relationship with the United States; and white-ruled South Africa. Ginor, Isabella, and Gideon Remez. These are some of the communist countries during the Cold War era.. * Angola * * The Cuban troops and the Soviets supported Angola for their war on independence and in return Angola adopted communism. United States intervention in Angola was heavily shaped by several factors. The Soviet Union collapsed in late 1991, giving rise to 15 newly independent nations, including a Russia with an anticommunist leader. Seducing the elected rulers of newly independent states proved the most effective policy for both the United States and the Soviet Union. [16], The South African government evoked the term rooi gevaar to refer the political and military threat posed by the Soviet Union's support for the guerrilla wings of anti-apartheid movements such as SWAPO and the ANC. China has lashed out at a new U_S_ House committee dedicated to countering Beijing, demanding its members discard their ideological bias and zero-sum Cold War mentality., Russias reintegration into the world of sports one year after the invasion of Ukraine began threatens to create the biggest rift in the Olympic movement since the Cold War, Arne Treholt, the former Norwegian Foreign Ministry official who was convicted of spying for the Soviet Union in what became Norways biggest Cold War espionage scandal has died in his Moscow home, When a giant Chinese balloon made an uninvited visit to the United States, U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin turned to a hotline system set up with Beijing to defuse the situation. [19] During the Nasser years, many young Egyptians studied in Soviet universities and military schools. The article is particularly useful in understanding the history of Communist parties and movements throughout Africa. Soviet and Warsaw Pact aircraft, arms and advisors were flown in to prop up his government. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). In 1960, France granted independence to most of its colonies in sub-Saharan Africa, and the British and the Belgians followed suit. Expand or collapse the "in this article" section, The Congo (Now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), 19601965, War in the Portuguese Colonies, 19611975, European Communist Countries Other Than the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, Art, Art History, and the Study of Africa, British Colonial Rule in Sub-Saharan Africa, Communism, Marxist-Leninism, and Socialism in Africa, Development of Early Farming and Pastoralism, Early States And State Formation In Africa, Eastern Africa and the South Asian Diaspora, Great Lakes States of Eastern Africa, The, Health, Medicine, and the Study of Africa, Historiography and Methods of African History, Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades, Kongo and the Coastal States of West Central Africa. Most incidents came during the Cold War, when the US and the Soviet Union battled for influence across the continent. Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces soldiers, however did not engage in combat, and after the overthrow of Castro's friend Ben Bella, Cuba cut back its involvement. termed the "Cold War" but is, in reality, a war in which, in Africa, much heat is engendered. After South Africa became a republic in 1961 and was expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations, relations were very cold. This sparked the Cuban missile crisis (1962), a confrontation that brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles. [12] Operating independently from the Kremlin, Fidel Castro turned Algeria into Cuba's first and closest ally in Africa between 1961 and 1965. changed sides to become violently anti-Soviet. The United States was sympathetic, in principle, to the gradual progression of colonized people toward independence. He was just 11 when he and his sister left Angola. former adversaries of the MPLA mainly the USA and China have become the most important trading partners, as Christabelle Peters points out. under Agostinho Neto and Eduardo dos Santos. United Nations (UN) secretary-general Dag Hammarskjld feared the imminent communisation of the Congo, despite the despatch of UN peacekeepers. In 1986 Gorbachev rejected the idea of a revolutionary takeover of the South African government, and advocated a negotiated settlement. by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the Edited by Stephen A. Smith. Algeria strongly supported the Palestinian cause, and when Moscow was lukewarm in support of the Six-Day War in 1967, Algeria refused to let the Soviets build a naval base at Mers El Kbir. Inevitably, South Africa was drawn into the conflict, because Cubans were using Angolan bases to train guerrilla units. Its definition varied from place to place and person to person. Starting then, the Cuban Operation Carlota, to support the MPLA, was to change the course of history in southern Africa. The signing of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty followed in 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. ", Alvin Z. Rubinstein, "Lumumba University-Assessment.". Omissions? Foreign interference became a hallmark of the past-World War II era, even its first months. Nato also armed two colonial powers, France and Portugal, in their struggles against nationalist insurgents in Algeria, Angola and Mozambique. Get 6 issues for 19.99 and receive a 10 gift card* PLUS free access to HistoryExtra.com, Save 70% on the shop price when you subscribe today - Get 13 issues for just $49.99 + FREE access to HistoryExtra.com, Snuffed out democracies and poisoned toothpaste: how the Cold War wreaked havoc in post-colonial Africa, Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics and snuffed out many fledgling democracies, The CIA brought dollars - and a hitman with poisoned toothpaste. Castro growled about betrayal, but acquiesced. "The Soviet Union in the Third World: Purpose in Search of Power.". [23], Soviet foreign policy in Somalia and Ethiopia was based on the Horn of Africa's strategic location for international trade and shipping as well as its military importance. Abboud declared himself an enemy of communism and of the Soviet-supported Nasser. Explore technological innovations of the Cold War, How the Cold War helped foster antibiotic resistance. Africa-Soviet Union relations covers the diplomatic, political, military, and cultural relationships between the Soviet Union and Africa from the 1945 to 1991. In the liberation struggles, film was a tool not only to document ongoing struggles and spread propaganda, but to inspire a sense of post-colonial, national identity. human resources had been so ruthlessly exploited for the sake of profit A brief treatment of the Cold War follows. The way forward for Africa in the aftermath of the Cold War - the decades-long struggle for supremacy between communist Soviet Union and capitalist US - was uncertain. The big players never fought each other head-on, but instead sponsored wars between their clients in Africa (and, indeed, in Asia) so that large swathes of the continent became war zones in which predominately locally recruited soldiers did the fighting. Elsewhere, this spilled over into anger. By 1948 Soviet-sponsored and -directed communists had consolidated their control of the governments of eastern and central Europe and suppressed all noncommunist political activity. . First published in the early 1980s, this book is essential reading for those interested in identifying why the most orthodox Afro-Marxist regimes of the time chose development strategies rooted in scientific socialism, or variants of Marxism-Leninism. The USSR and Cubas involvement in countries like Angola and Ethiopia has dark episodes too, and has been heavily criticised. Until the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union showed very little interest in Africa. Moscow extended $100 million and credits to buy Soviet exports, while China provided $50 million in credits. Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University was established in Moscow in 1960 to provide higher education to students from developing countries. The emergence of nationalist movements on the continent coincided with the beginning of the Cold War, and the ideological and strategic competition involving the United States and the Soviet Union and China for client states in Africa. For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. Under the leadership of Ahmed Skou Tour, the former French colony of Guinea in West Africa proclaimed its independence in 1958 and immediately sought foreign aid. Please subscribe or login. Some were destined for Rhodesia, where the white minority were defending themselves against nationalist partisans, some of whom enjoyed Soviet patronage. "Revisiting the Soviet Moment in Sub-Saharan Africa". Instead the Kremlin provided Gizenga with financial aid, and urged its allies to run the blockade and assist Gizenga while avoiding a direct conflict with the West on the issue. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. It is argued that these states can be divided into orthodox and heterodox categories depending on how closely their governments aligned with the thinking of the Russian Communist Party. The Cold War came down to some basic differences between the world-views of the United States and the Soviet Union. Paris sold Algeria French warplanes in 1968, looking to counterbalance the Soviet influence. But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War.After 1945, Africa became caught up in the confrontation between America and the Soviet Union, the so-called Cold War. Their thought also considered the critical need to control capital without being exploited by it. Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal were valuable Nato allies but, if they persisted in resisting African nationalist movements or delaying independence, they were offering the Soviet Union a propaganda bonus. Radu, Michael, and Arthur Jay Klinghoffer. After 1945, the pace of change quickened. Africa: Problems in the Transition to Socialism. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. This month, as part of its Red Africa research project, Calvert 22 , a London-based, Russian-financed foundation, presents Things Fall Part, a nostalgic exhibition of various artworks drawing on the legacy of the friendships between Africa, the Soviet Union and related countries during the Cold War. Soon after dawn on 5 November 1956, British paratroopers drifted down on the El Gamil airfield near Port Said in northern Egypt. Khrushchev said it was a three-way contest, the third pole being bourgeois nationalist movements that were inherently anti-imperialist and were demanding decolonization across the globe. But perhaps the most under-covered chapter in this history is how pivotal the Cuban intervention in Angola was, in bringing about the end of apartheid rule in South Africa. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (194849); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953. under Major Ngouabi. African elites who were exposed to socialist ideas either in the workplace or through the writings of theorists such as Karl Marx and V.I. Lenin and were attracted by the notions of social equality, mutual respect, and the sharing of labor. For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (196475) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule (see Vietnam War). The Americans and the British worried that Soviet domination in eastern Europe might be permanent. The terms communism and socialism have come in some places to be used interchangeably. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. The Kremlin developed four major long-term policy goals: At no time was Moscow willing to engage in combat in Africa, although its ally Cuba did so. The Soviet Union was the first country in the world to recognize the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic in 1962 by establishing diplomatic relations a few months before the official proclamation of its independence. The Second World War had given enormous impetus to the embryonic nationalist movements in British and French colonies. The one-party states that replaced colonial administrations were handed the apparatus of domestic coercion. The Cold War can be seen as the period, from 1945 to 1991, of intense struggle for ideological supremacy between capitalist forces led by the USA and the forces of communism spearheaded by the USSR. . Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!: Reagans Berlin Speech, https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War, The National WWII Museum New Orleans - Cold Conflict, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum - The Cold War, Cold War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Cold War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up), China rips new US House committee on countering Beijing, Russia's sports exile persists 1 year after invading Ukraine, Norway official who spied for the Soviets has died in Moscow, 'It just rang': In crises, US-China hotline goes unanswered, helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954). The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc, the Socialist Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed during the Cold War (1947-1991). They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. 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